In the Zedek and Sophia post, we talked a lot about Proverbs in connection with wisdom. Today, we're going to talk about Job, the second wisdom book.
Specifically,the monsters of Job 40-41.
Proverbs tells us that divine wisdom rules the world and operates it on principles of justice, goodness and beauty, but Job comes right afterwards (or rather, it should) to remind us that things aren't always fair, because:
1. The world is too complex
2. None of us have the right to demand justice
3. The world is fallen.
Basically, Job starts with a prologue in which we learn that Job is a great guy, who is very blessed by God and wealthy (essentially a king). Meanwhile in the Divine Council, the Accuser accuses God (as is his wont). He basically says that, because good people get good things (see Proverbs and Job's life), they don't count as good.
He says they're only being good to get the rewards from God. You know the story.
When Job asks Yahweh for an explanation of his suffering, God appears as a whirlwind. He makes two major arguments, both using parts of creation to make a point.
Job 38:39 - 39:30 mentions many animals to illustrate God's specific and deep knowledge of the natural world. Because of this, many conclude that Behemoth and Leviathan (who are discussed in the next chapter chapter) must be natural, normal animals like the others (eagles, hawks, ostriches, horses and etc.)
The first problem is that the various short animal proverbs are separated from the long monologue about Behemoth and Leviathan by fourteen verse in which Job admits defeat and God questions Job on a new line. He asks how Job can question his justice unless Job has the ability to run the cosmos fairly himself.
This sets up the theme of the Monster discourse, which is totally different from the animal proverbs (which are a call back to the Sophia omnipresence within nature). Where they show God's attention to detail, the monsters show his might and scope, while proving a point- Job couldn't run the universe.
We'll start with the simpler of the two- Behemoth.
The word 'Behemoth' is the plural of the Hebrew feminine word for 'beast' (used especially of oxen or cattle), but is used with masculine singular constructions. Like 'Elohim,' Behemoth may have been seen as a composite and ultimately male being, or the plural female might be seen as a 'Royal We' kind of status statement.
Job describes Behemoth as a super-ox, the strong and powerful pinnacle of animalia that 'ranks first of all God's works.'
The Behemoth eats grass 'like an ox,' the wild animals play nearby it, it 'lies hidden among the reeds of the marsh,' and it has a 'tail' which it makes 'stiff like a cedar.' This is mentioned in conjunction with the sinews of its thighs, and many scholars naturally believe the 'zanabow' to be a more subtle member (which seems to be supported by the Vulgate's translation- 'testiculorum').
It is not afraid of rivers (perhaps emphasizing that it is the only fit opponent for Yam and Leviathan), and it is impossible to trap but Yahweh can approach it with a sword. This last item vaguely suggests a Chaoskampf narrative, and the sword of Yahweh is reminiscent of Yahweh's attack on Leviathan is Isaiah 27.
Outside of Job, there are no references of Behemoth until much later Judeo-Christian literature that is clearly derivative from the biblical tradition. Thus, we have no outside sources to derive his appearance or essence from.
However, though 'behemoth' only occurs in Job 40, another form of the same word appears elsewhere in Scripture.
Being a grammatically plural word it is difficult to tell if 'Behemowt' is referring to the monster or simply to normal beasts, cows and oxen. Possible instances of Behemoth include:
Deuteronomy 32:24 : I will send wasting famine against them, consuming pestilence and deadly
plague; I will send against them the fangs of Behemoth, the venom of vipers that glide in the dust.
Now this is interesting- the passage uses a contrast between Behemoth and a gliding serpent. In Job, that serpent was Leviathan, here we have vipers.
Isaiah 30:6 : An oracle concerning the Behemoth of the south: into a land of adversity and distress, of young lion and of old lion, whence are viper and flying Seraph, they carry on the shoulder of asses their wealth, And on the hump of camels their treasures, Unto a people not profitable.
This verse seems to place Behemoth in context with Seraphim and possibly other spiritual animals. The old and young lion could be fallen Erelim (we discussed the connection with Ariel in Angelology part five), and the viper was seen also in the previous verse, so both passages could be referencing some type of demon.
Job 12:7-8 : And yet ask, I pray thee, Behemoth, and it doth shew thee, and a bird of heaven, and it doth declare to thee. Or talk to the Earth, and it shows thee, and fishes of the sea recount to thee:
This passage may show four spiritual beings, 'a bird of heaven' being Ziz and Earth being an animated being as we often see in the Bible. For instance, in Exodus 15:12 God stretched out his right hand and a helpful earth gulps down all his enemies.
As for the oracular fish, I might suggest that 'fishes' was originally 'Tanninim' or some other sea-dragon term, and referred to Leviathan's posse. After all, if Job is as old as many suspect, it was probably translated multiple times.
Psalm 73:22 : And I am brutish, and do not know. Behemoth I have been with Thee.
The last passage is the only one I really doubt. Behemoth just fits best as an adjective- 'I've been acting like a wild animal.'
So let's look at some of the later references to Behemoth.
In the Book of Enoch, Leviathan is a female monster of the sea (dwelling in the waters of the Abyss) and Behemoth is the male monster of the land (dwelling east of Eden in the invisible desert Dudayin). In 1 Esdras they were both created on day five, then assigned the two realms of earth, Sea and Land respectively.
In 2 Baruch, we are told that both will be made into the feast for those taken to live with God in the messianic age. This idea is partially based on Ezekiel 39:17-20 in which Gog and Magog (and all the evil powers) provide a feast for all the animals.
Revelation 13 makes use of the Leviathan/Behemoth trope in its allegory of the Beast of the Sea (a lesser Leviathan, representing Rome) and the Beast of the land (representing evil kings, specifically Nero).
There are three major views of what Behemoth was.
Most modern Christians take the view that Behemoth was a natural animal. Elephants have been suggested, as have crocodiles and even water buffalo.
Some evidence for he idea of Behemoth-as-Hippopotamus comes from Egyptian iconography in which Horus defeats his divine foe Seth (a chaos god), sometimes shown as a red Hippopotamus. This also fits well with the methods of attempted capture for Behemoth, shown in Job 40:24, which are analogous to ancient methods of Hippo-hunting.
Some scholars argue that Behemoth never existed, being either a purely mythical animal or an allegorical creature. Volfers claimed that the entire passage was only describing Leviathan, and that Behemoth was simply a plural for 'beasts' in its usual sense, or a title of Leviathan. Kinner Wilson theorized that the Behemoth story was a parody, showing what would happen if God took Job's advice in running the Universe- Behemoth is shown as a silly, cartoonish ox-like creature with uneven pronouns, so afraid of the other animals making fun of it that it hides in the marsh and reeds by the Jordan river.
Others see Behemoth as a second chaos beast, like Leviathan but different in nature and dominion. This approach tends draw from the later teachings of Jewish and Christian writings, concerning the chaotic trio of Ziz (the great bird of the sky), Leviathan (the great fish/serpent in the sea) and Behemoth (the great cow/ox on the land).
There is basis for this second chaos beast in the Ugaritic Baal myth, where the 'furious bull of El' is mentioned. The 'Bull of Heaven' in the Gilgamesh Epic also follows a chaoscampf narrative, with Gilgamesh and Enkidu defeating him.
A connection between Behemoth and the God's baby cow Atik (also called Arshu) is evidenced in a Ugaritic text where the war goddess Anat boasts, "surely I lifted up the dragon... smote the crooked serpent, the tyrant with the seven heads. I smote Ar[shu] beloved of God, I put an end to God's calf Atik."*
*KTU 1.3 iii:43- 44
Interestingly, the highly fragmented 'Story of Krt' (which could be read as a primitive version of the Job story), seems to identify the Bull of Heaven with El himself!
Krt loses his clan, his estate and his wife, and cries through the night. Then, in a dream, El comes to him. In this story, El refers to himself repeatedly as 'the father of humanity,' but also as 'the Bull.' Krt realizes that he does not need silver, gold and possessions, he only needs his father, the Bull El. El tells him to wash the tears away and clean himself.
This brings up an interesting possibility- perhaps Atik (Arshu), the beloved young calf of El, was not the juvenile Bull of Heaven- perhaps the Bull of Heaven was El himself and the calf Arshu was his son.
Now keep in mind that 'El' is the same title (usually translated 'God') constantly applied to Yahweh in the Bible! There is undoubtedly a connection between the Ugaritic chief/father/creator El and the chief/father/creative Yahweh El. Remember that, in the Bible and archaeological discoveries, the Israelites are always associated horns and bull imagery with Yahweh, some even taking it so far as to make golden calf idols as representations of him.
Could it be that the 'Bull of Heaven' from Gilgamesh is some distorted representation of an early symbol of Yahweh, and that on some level Behemoth is a connection to the son of Yahweh?
There is some evidence for a contrast between Leviathan and Behemoth in which Leviathan represents ultimate evil, Satan, and Behemoth represents ultimate good, Christ. As far-fetched as this sounds, remember that Behemoth was 'first among the works of God.'
What better/prior creation exists than Jesus, the firstborn of the universe? Also interesting is that Behemoth is seen as a friendly creature, though powerful, whereas Leviathan is usually shown as evil and connected with Belial.
So let's discuss Leviathan.
Leviathan is the Hebrew name of a mythical sea serpent who works with Yam, the Caananite god of the Sea. His mythopoeic rule goes back to one of human mythology's most widespread archetypes- the serpent of chaotic nature.
He is the same legend as the many-headed Hydra of Greco-Roman mythology, the Scandinavian Jormungandra, or the thousand-headed Finnish Iku-Turso, and is first attested by the name 'leviathan' in a Ugaritic text.
Leviathan's primary scriptural function is as the chaotic force of the primordial waters against Yahweh's creating order. The Biblical poets adapted the Chaoskampf trope as both an illustration of the ultimate cosmic war and a poetic depiction of God's covenant might and guiding hand in creation.
'Leviathan' probably means 'the twisting one' or 'the circular one,' and from this it appears that the initial concept of Leviathan was as a huge snake, not unlike modern depictions of sea serpents.
This King of the Sea is called by many titles:
1. Fleeing serpent (Isa 27:1, Job 26:13)
2. Wriggling serpent (Isa 27:1)
3. Rahab (Psalm 89:10, Isaiah 51:9, Job 9:13, 26:12, Sirach 43:25).
4. Tannin (Genesis 1:21, Job 7:12, Psalm 91:13, Psalm 148:7, Isaiah 27:1, 51:9, Jeremiah 51:34, Ezekiel 29:3).
'Fleeing serpent' is attested in mythological texts, where a Leviathan-equivalent is defeated by the victorious weather god Baal (KTU 1.5 i: 1 II 27). 'Wriggling serpent' also has mythological origins, along with an associated title implied but not directly used in Scripture- 'mighty one with the seven heads.'
'Tannin' is often applied to the army of chaotic sea monsters that follows him into battle, and apparently also to some type of natural, non-demonic sea monsters. Like Tannin, the Bible uses 'Rahab' not only as a name for Leviathan specifically but as a species name for the sea monsters in general (when pluralized, as in Genesis 1:21, Psalm 74:13, 148:7).
The title Rahab is probably a later, exile-era adaption of Leviathan, and was heavily influenced by Babylonian mythology, specifically Tiamat, primordial goddess of the ocean, who fought Marduk king of the gods.
Also, echoing the gods-of-the-nations concept (see Biblical Angelology part three), Rahab is seen as the representative spiritual being for Egypt, sometimes even becoming a title for the country (Isaiah 30:7, Psalm 87:4). This may have something to do with Egypt being seen as a land of dragons and seraphim (see Biblical Angelology part four).
It has been suggested that Rahab, Leviathan and the Seven-Headed Dragon were originally three different characters, perhaps with Leviathan as the prince-like warrior, Rahab as his mother (the Tiamat element) and the Dragon as his primordial father, King of the Sea. There is some Biblical hint of a sort of 'Satanic Trinity.' In Paradise Lost, Lucifer and Beelzebub form a trinity with Astaroth.
This could explain why Leviathan is sometimes male and sometimes female- such as in 1 Enoch.
Rabab is also described as having helpers.
Job 9:13 : God doth not turn back His anger, Under Him the helpers of Rahab bow.
There is very good reason to associate these chaotic helpers with demons. An ancient near eastern ritual text describes how the chaotic armies of the deep afflict humanity and gives a method for exorcizing them. If these were simply sea monsters, why are they being treated as evil spirits?
There is definitely connection between these Chaos monsters and Egypt- both Leviathan and Behemoth are brought up in oracles against it (Isaiah 30, Psalm 87, Ezekiel 29:3 and 32:2). Like Babel, Egypt was a supreme archetype of sinful worldly nations, adding yet more weight to the connection between these Chaos Beasts and the created world. This concept also relates to the New Testament Babel, Rome.
It does seem that the Leviathan of Job is described with features of a crocodile. We mentioned the Egyptian origins of the hippopotamus-elements connected to Behemoth- it seems a similar imaginative process occurred with the Leviathan.
If we look into the Egyptian concept of the crocodile we find that crocodiles are seen as lurking water monsters, enemies specifically of the sun god Horus. This could have influenced the Near Eastern Chaoskampf dragons, specifically seen in Job, where Leviathan is possible linked to crocodilian imagery.
It could be that Leviathan is the super-crocodile, while Behemoth is the super-hippo and super-cow.
In Exodus 7, Moses' staff turns into a 'tannin.' Though usually interpreted as simply a snake, it makes sense in light of this Egyptian connection that Moses' staff turned into a sea serpent, and the tanninim that the sorcerers then summoned in imitation were demonic 'helpers of Rahab.'
This contest is immediately followed by the turning of the waters to blood, a judgment on the gods of Egypt (and ultimately their spiritual prince, Rabah). It is as though a massive sea monster has been mortally wounded and is bleeding out its wounds into the Nile.
The huge sea creature in Jonah, by the way, was often connected to Leviathan. While many extrabiblical accounts identify the creature itself as Leviathan, others have the fish narrowly avoid being eaten by the Leviathan in a big underwater chase scene.
The last major Leviathan passage is found in Daniel 7. Four Beasts, representing tyrannical kingdoms, crawl out of the churning ocean. The final and ultimate beast provided much of the inspiration for the Dragon in Revelation, and he is defeated by the Messianic Son of Man, an obvious prophecy of Jesus' defeat of Satan.
Daniel 7:7-14: “After that, in my vision at night I looked, and there before me was a fourth beast—terrifying and frightening and very powerful. It had large iron teeth; it crushed and devoured its victims and trampled underfoot whatever was left. It was different from all the former beasts, and it had ten horns.
(Daniel specifically notes that it was 'different from all the former beasts.' This monster is the ultimate pinnacle of Satanic Babylon- Rome, Satan's final and most powerful kingdom.)
While I was thinking about the horns, there before me was another horn, a little one, which came up among them; and three of the first horns were uprooted before it. This horn had eyes like the eyes of a human being and a mouth that spoke boastfully.
As I looked, thrones were set in place, and the Ancient of Days took his seat. His clothing was as white as snow; the hair of his head was white like wool. His throne was flaming with fire, and its wheels were all ablaze. A river of fire was flowing, coming out from before him. Thousands upon thousands attended him; ten thousand times ten thousand stood before him. The court was seated, and the books were opened.
Then I continued to watch because of the boastful words the horn was speaking. I kept looking until the beast was slain and its body destroyed and thrown into the blazing fire. (The other beasts had been stripped of their authority, but were allowed to live for a period of time.)
In my vision at night I looked, and there before me was one like a Son of Man, coming with the clouds of heaven. He approached the Ancient of Days and was led into his presence. He was given authority, glory and sovereign power; all nations and peoples of every language worshiped him. His dominion is an everlasting dominion that will not pass away, and his kingdom is one that will never be destroyed.
CONCLUSION: Behemoth and Leviathan are two sides of the same coin, a lost paradigm of ancient Near Eastern mythos that would have been clear to the original readers.
To oversimplify, Behemoth and Leviathan were one creature with three layers of imaginative background. There is the natural foundation of the hippopotamus and the crocodile, turned into a mythological Chaos beast-king.
This transformation is connected to the cosmic crocodile enemy of the Sun-god and the hippo form of Seth, the Egyptian Chaos god. This dual beast is then used as an allegory for sinful earthly kingdoms, specifically Egypt and Rome.
Though partially inspired by real animals, the key images are borrowed from the Seven-Headed Chaos serpent and the Calf of God, son and favorite work of the Heavenly Bull.
These tropes were applied as interchangeable representations of nature. The key is to think of them as symbols, not characters (though I do believe God indeed created two Chaos beasts, and the monsters described to Job are very real).
Like the hippopotamus mother goddess of Egyptian tradition, the Monster of Job symbolizes both contrasting poles of nature- as a peaceful, God-made and beautiful thing (shown as the passive, kindly Behemoth who protects the other animals) and as a ferocious, chaotic, fallen and rebellious entity that must be subdued and controlled, ultimately by God (depicted via the Leviathan).
Behemoth, as 'first of God's works,' represents the natural world as it was in the Garden of Eden- wholesome, kindly, beautiful and majestic. More specifically, he represents humanity, who was considered the capstone of God's creation in his unfallen state- virile, good and strong, ruler of the lesser animals and master of the cosmos (second only to God).
Thus, Behemoth ultimately represents Christ, the second Adam, who shelters us and was pursued by men only to be slain by the sword of his own father, Yahweh, who sent him to the cross.
This wholesome vision of nature is represented sometimes by Leviathan, too (remember that these two are somewhat interchangeable). Thus the Behemoth-esque vision of Psalm 104:26:
There the ships go to and fro, and Leviathan, which you formed to play therein.
There's actually syntactic ambiguity about this verse- a possible reading is that Yahweh made the Leviathan so that he, Yahweh, could play with him. According to Rabbinical tradition, God dedicates the last three hours of the day to playing with Leviathan, seen almost as a divine pet.
Either way, the verse depicts a happy, enjoyable relationship between God and his creation, and Leviathan is used as the mascot of a loving, interactive creation that delights in God, like Adam and Eve in the Garden. In Amos 9:3, Leviathan is just a snake chilling at the bottom of the sea who will bite people on God's command (yes, somewhat like a guard dog).
In Psalm 148, the storms, the sea and the Tanninim actually lead all the animals and all of nature in praise of God!
Psalm 148:7-10: Praise Yahweh from the earth, you Tanninim and all ocean depths, lightning and hail,snow and clouds, stormy winds that do his bidding, you mountains and all hills, fruit trees and all cedars, wild animals and all cattle, small creatures and flying birds.
The inhabitants of God's world were meant to enjoy it.
But there's another, dark side to this picture. Leviathan represents nature in its second and current form, a chaotic place that poses danger to humanity. The world is a realm of natural disasters, storms, death and disorder, and humans participate in that chaos with acts of willful rebellion against God their creator.
And at the head of this all, causing and filling all the rebellious worldlings, is Belial, rising as a seven-headed sea monster in lead of a random and hate-filled army in despite of Christ's peaceful kingdom.
As Leviathan, Satan is the controlling power behind all the kingdoms of the world, thus the seven-headed beast of Revelation 13. Humans (specifically human kings) are depicted, then, as a fallen version of Behemoth, working for Satan/Leviathan. Egypt was called Rahab because, just like Rome and Babylon, her true power was in the chaotic rebellion at the center of our fallen world.
In the Bible storyline, there are three battles between these armies of Chaos and Yahweh.
The Primeval Chaoskampf is described in traditional terms of Yam, the Sea, Leviathan, and his army of dragons. By winning this battle Yahweh was enabled to create an orderly Universe, that of Eden, with all the Chaos trapped outside and watched by Cherub warriors (see Ezekiel 28).
This first battle is discussed in Psalm 74, and concludes with Yahweh giving the meat of Leviathan to the Israelites in the wilderness (Psalm 74:14). It is likely that this was meant as an explanation for the mysterious manna that fell from heaven in Exodus 16. Jesus later contrasts this manna, which went bad after one day, with his own eternal and unfailing blessings (John 6).
Job 26 nicely summarized this Creation Chaoskampf (which is ubiquitous all throughout the Psalms- see Psalm 104, a particularly beautiful example) using imagery reminiscent of Genesis 1 and describing the end of the chaotic storm via Yahweh's defeat of Rahab, the gliding serpent.
Job 26:10-13: He marks out the horizon on the face of the waters for a boundary between light and darkness.... By his power he churned up the sea; by his wisdom he cut Rahab to pieces. By his breath the skies became fair, his hand pierced the gliding serpent.
Though defeated, Leviathan is not finished.
Isaiah 27 speaks of another battle yet to come, in which Yahweh will defeat the full forces of Chaos. This battle was also prophesied in Genesis 3:15, when the Protoevangelicum spoke of future struggles between snakes and humans as a veiled oracle of the great battle between the God-Serpent and the God-Man.
Isaiah 27: 1: In that day Yahweh will punish with his sword, his fierce, great and powerful sword, Leviathan the gliding serpent, Leviathan the coiling serpent. He will slay the monster of the sea.
We see the fulfillment of these prophecies in Jesus' defeat of Satan and his forces, which is detailed from a spiritual-cosmic perspective twice in the book of Revelation.
Revelation 12 describes 'an enormous red dragon with seven heads and ten horns and seven crowns on its heads' that stand waiting for Mary to give birth so that he can destroy Jesus. Jesus is snatched up to God on his Throne in safety.
A war in heaven then ensues, Michael and the Armies of Heaven defeating Leviathan- identified specifically as 'that ancient serpent called the devil, or Satan, who leads the whole world astray.' The spiritual Kingdom of the Messiah is established and Satan and the demons are cast down to the earth to terrorize the nations.
The narrative is expanded in Revelation 19, where the Kingdom Chaoskampf concludes in the binding of Satan. As we've discussed, this second Chaoskampf is already past.
Piecing it all together, Satan was thrown out of heaven at the victory of Christ, roamed about the earth empowering Rome to great and greater wrath against Christians until the Second Coming (at 70 AD, it seems), when Jesus came back down as described in Revelation 19, defeated the demonic rulers of the nations, and bound Satan.
Leviathan is currently bound, and the spiritual world in in the power of Christ. But, as Revelation 20:3 says, Satan must be set free for a little while when the Millennium is over. The third and final Chaoskampf is yet to come.
In Revelation, this third war is introduced in chapter 16 and detailed to completion in Revelation 20. The classic battle of Armageddon, when Satan gathers all his forces to march against God only to be judged and destroyed.
According to most extra-biblical sources and the Rabbis, the eschatological Last Feast of the Righteous will consist of Leviathan meat. There are echoes of this is the Wedding Feast of the Lamb.
Revelation 2:17: To the one who conquers I will give some of the hidden manna.'
Remember that manna was explains as the remnants of Leviathan from the first Chaoskampf (Psalm 74:14), so it make sense that this 'hidden manna' will be the spoils of the final Chaoskampf, served at the Marriage Supper.
Though this repeated Chaoskampf may seem strange and artificial, it actually has very good precedence in mythology. The Ugaritic myth of Baal references a primordial battle between Baal, helped by his consort Anat, against Yam the sea god and other chaos monsters. Though the defeat is celebrated, the myth tells us that the battle did not stop at the creation of the cosmos. The powers of chaos, in mythology, are a threat that must be faced again and again.
Another interesting detail is that Baal was helped by Anat. Likewise, a Hittite cylinder seal shows a dragon made from curling waves being attacked by two gods. Taking it a step further, an Assyrian seal shows a dragon with a body of waves being attacked by a great warrior with two helpers.
Who are these three deities who work together to defeat the Satanic Leviathan? The Bible's answer is that they are none other than Sophia, Christ and the Ancient of Days, defeating Satan again and again.
This repeating battle also manifests in a hopeful anticipation that God defeated the demonic national powers once before, surely he can do it now! Isaiah 51 employs Yahweh's defeat of Chaos 'in the days of old' as a reason for hope in the present threat from satanic world powers.
Isaiah connected God bringing creation from from the waters of Chaos with his delivery of the Israelites from Rahab's forces, the army of Egypt. God parted the waters of Chaos so his people could escape Leviathan's wrath.
This victory can be repeated again and again- Chaos will never be allowed to triumph over God's people for long.
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